Kyle Allred: Professor Crotty, the research from you and yourteam that’s been featured in the New York Times and has been recently held up by Dr. Fauci ata congressional hearing has been crucial to our understanding about how our immune system reactsto this new coronavirus and its connections for inoculations. I’ve mustered a lot of questions fromour viewers about immunity and vaccines including the basic question, how safe are mRNA vaccines? Butbefore we get to those questions, can you briefly explain your most recent research about SARS-CoV-2Professor Crotty: Sure, the most recent was to ask, essentially, do beings have immune memory to this virusor not? And what does that recognition was like? An immune remembrance really is a lot like brainmemory; it’s you’ve seen something before and your immune plan has figured out how torecognize it and remember it.It’s really one of three major parts that you’ve got: antibodies, thenyou’ve got aide T cadres, and you’ve got murderer T cells. And the the simple highway to think about thoseis antibodies are really good at stopping a virus outside of cadres, but once a virus has infectedthe cadres, then you really need T cells. T cells are specialized for dealing with fouled cadres andantibodies get made by B cells, and so in terms of memory, you’ve really got memory B cells that canmake the antibodies. You’ve got the antibodies that really circulating in your blood and thenyou’ve got these two kinds of T cadres that can either kill cadres or have other jobs, and so whatwe did was to ask in people who had had COVID-1 9, do they have these four kinds of memory andsome sub flavors of those? How much of that, and how long did it last? And the quick answerwas essentially like 95 percent of people at six to eight months post-infection reallyhad a robust quantity of immune remembering based on on these measurements we did, and this isthe largest study of immune storage ever in beings to actually meter all of thesedifferent parts of immune memory.So it was a lot of work, but the research results werepretty interesting that people’s immune structure do tend to be recollecting this viruspretty well. So that was our recent study. Kyle: SARS-CoV-2 is made up of, what is it, 25 or 28 major proteins? Professor Crotty: Correct Kyle: The scientists at Pfizer and BioNTech and Moderna have isolatedthe messenger RNA for merely the spike protein. Is that remedy? Is this spike proteinmade up of one protein or of multipleproteins? Professor Crotty: It’s one protein, so it’sa it’s a trimer, it is therefore purposes up being three copies of the same protein, so it’s all encoded by one RNA.It’s the same sequence simply three folded together three times.Kyle: Got it. Why did bothcompanies choose to use spike protein for their target for this vaccine? Professor Crotty: Right, so there areabout 29 licensed human vaccines, depending on how you weigh, and almost every of them work onthe basis of protective antibody responses, and so when you’re trying to move fastwith with inoculation growing, the most obvious target is to try and make antibodiesagainst the protein that’s on the surface of the virus, because antibodies act by bindingto the surface of a virus and essentially covering the virus and keeping the virus from doinganything.That’s really the simple path to think about antibodies acting, and sofor previous coronaviruses, it was known that there are a couple of different proteins on thesurface of of the virus, but it’s really the spike protein that’s the most important points and probably the mostimportant antibody target, and sure as shooting, in the months subsequent to those decisions, lots ofdata have accumulated that have said, virtually, all of the neutralize antibodies, the importantantibodies against SARS-CoV-2, are against the spike protein.So the spike protein is the besttarget to focus on for antibodies, and when I talk to you about, you know there really beingthree parts of the immune system, one of the concerns has been that sometimes antibodiesaren’t that great at stopping all viruses, and then you really need the T cells to kick in, and the T cells don’t consequently recollect spike. They might accept some of those other 25 proteins, and so that was actually our first major science studies on COVID-1 9 was to ask infectedpeople: do parties establish T cadres that acknowledge spike too or only other proteins? And what we foundwas that it polluted beings, actually parties make a lot of T cell responses to spike likewise, andso that was a really that was a good mansion supporting the vaccine development at all that.If you are, some viruses you have to choose more than one protein.For this virus, it looks a lot like, “yeah time preferring one protein is a tolerable method to try and get antibodyresponses and T cell responses.”Kyle: Along thoselines, f this virus mutated, well we know it’smutating all the time, but if there was a mutation, I guess, is it possible that there’s a mutationwhere this virus could infect and can cause harm without the spike protein? Professor Crotty: No , not without thespike protein. The question’s really about whether you know if this is the spike protein.Can it mutate the spike protein so it inspections a little bit different and now antibodies arerecognizing the three-dimensional structure they’re physically fixing? It’s sort of like if, well I intend, it’s like anything. It’s like , you are familiar with, it’s like my mouse, right? And it’s like, well, maybethe antibodies are really recognise this little knobby wheel, and if they’re just recognizingthat and the virus mutates that, well now you’re in trouble, because you’re not seeingthe other parts of it, and so that’s something parties have been spending a lot of attention to.Ofwhere exactly are those virus mutants? And then, where are the antibody responses people are uttering? And viruses behave different ways, so flu is a really big problem in that way, where influenza isclearly able to mutate, but a lot of other viruses aren’t. So like measles, there’s been ameasles vaccine for, what, 70 years now? And the virus has never managed to mutate away from that.And same thing with poliomyelitis and hepatitis B, and so far it looks like 95 percent of people stillhad antibodies that counterbalance that virus is a good one, and that’s probably because every singleperson is impelling multiple different antibodies, so even though they are the virus has one mutation, thatdoesn’t flee, because it’s only escaping one little one of the purposes of the immune response.Kyle Allred: The scientistshave been able to isolate this one strand of mRNA that merely codes for the spike protein, andthen they’ve packaged it into what are called lipid nanoparticles, is that right? Professor Crotty: Yes, that’s correct.Kyle: Mostly only little overweight droplets, if you are able to, right? Very small-scale uh microscopicfat droplets. Professor Crotty: Super tiny butter droplets. Yep, that’s mostly what you’re talking about.Kyle: So, why do they box it that way and too how do they box that road? They have this mRNA, how do they get it into the lipid nanoparticle? Professor Crotty: Yeah, so um and so I fantasize for that we also needto deal with just what is RNA, and why is an RNA vaccine a rational approach? So RNA is a reallycommon molecule in your mas; basically all animate thing use RNA as words, andthose themes encode within a cell.At any one of your cadres, at any given point in time, you’ve gotlike 5,000 different RNAs and those RNAs are each encoding different meanings that tell the cellsto do different things, make different proteins, and RNAs are made to be transient, so they’rereally a good deal like, it’s like 5,000 Post-It notes, and they’ll be around for hours or hours, and then they get shredded up, and they’re gone, they’re temporary, and so an RNA vaccineis same thing, it’s a temporary content, but it has to get into the cell, and so if it’s inthe cell, the cadre will now read that word and do what the letter says, which helps then instructthe immune organisation. And then the message goes away okay. So RNA are these temporarymessages, or like snapchat contents was the other analogy that I’ve used.There’s amessage and then it it expires. Technologically one of the big challenges there is that RNAis temporary, it gets shredded up genuinely readily — again like exactly shredding up a Post-It note — and so “youre gonna have to” get it into the cells withoutit all getting shredded up. So if you really introduce RNA from a syringe into somebody’s scalp, it doesn’t get into the cadres. S the the manoeuvre that people figured out over the past1 0 years was, “oh you can leant it in these little butter droplets, and those littledroplets has essentially fuse with the cadres and liberate the RNA into the cell.” So now you’ve got, the meaning has now obliged it into the cell where it needs to be read, and then it can be shredded upafterwards.So it’s just, it’s a give plan to get them all get the RNA into the cells.Kyle: The lipid nanoparticle that’s taken this mRNA vaccine, what cells in our mas does it actuallygo into? Is it just muscle cadres in our arm where we get the injection? Professor Crotty: Yeah, it’s a good question. Soit definitely goes into muscle cells, and I see, and scientists are still learning whichcells are the important cadres, mostly. Most of the cells that are getting theRNA are the muscle cells, and it’s possible that specialized cadres of the immune systemthat aren’t very common, but they may get the RNA, and those may be the more important forstarting the immune response, but yeah most of the RNA is going into the muscle cadres and I’msure the protein idiom there matters.It’s just, that might not be the only cell type thatmatters. Kyle: A question a lot of parties have had is, once that mRNA gets into our cells and codes forthat spike protein, does it exactly code, does each rope of mRNA exactly code for one spike protein? Andthen does the Post-It note, or the mRNA get destroyed or terminate, or does it code formultiple proteins and final for maybe an hour or a period? Like how long does the mRNA from thisvaccine actually last-place in our cadres, nearly? Professor Crotty: Yeah, it’s a good question.So the goals and targets, so theRNA comes predicted multiple times, so it’ll just continue — it gets predict over and over and over again, so that you make a lot of the spike protein, which will then get expressed on the surfaceof the cell to stimulate the immune structure. And I’d say median RNAs in your cell will lastsome time, generally minutes to hours, but some of them will last a day or more, and these, the RNAvaccines are engineered to be stable, and so um the information I’ve seen is that they’ll lasta couple of days.Kyle: So we have the mRNA inside of a lipid nanoparticle, what else goes in in thevaccine plainly it’s got to be some type of saline solution or something? Professor Crotty: Right, that’s it.It’s mostly, um, it’s mostly precisely delivered in some, essentially, some, yeah, salt water set to matchthe the saltiness of your own body. So that it’s essentially as “natural” as possible.Kyle: It seemslike a question that a lot of beings have with vaccines in general is, “okay, well what elsedo they put in them? ” And from my understanding with this Pfizer and BioNTech vaccine, theycame out and said, “we didn’t keep any adjuvants or preservatives in this particular vaccine.” Whyare adjuvants exerted sometimes in vaccines? Professor Crotty: Yeah, that’s a great question.So essentially, usuallyadjuvants are are used, and it goes back to what I said about immune recollection at the start, you know your immune system, some remembers some things really well and retains other thingsreally poorly, and there are complexities there, but the the rule of thumb is that the biggerthe threat, then the bigger the reminiscence. It’s a lot like, you are familiar with, you might not be able toremember what socks you put on two days ago, but if you’re almost in a car accidentat some special intersection, you’re going to remember that intersection for a long time, right? Because it was a memorable happening, and so inoculations have to deal with the same thing: that the immune system is good at ignoring things that aren’t very imperil, and so adjuvants area direction of providing the immune system a stimulation that says, “hey, this thing that you’re about to see, this is a potential threat, and you should make a substantial immune response to it and rememberit, ” and so that’s if you merely infuse a protein by itself.That protein’s inert; it’s non-threatening; it’s not replicating; it’s not going to do anything to you. And so the adjuvant is the immunestimulus to get you going. An RNA vaccine virtually intent up encoding its ownstimulation, it is therefore reaches that on its own. Kyle: The lipid nanoparticle has done its position. It’sbrought the mRNA into the cell, and now it’s the ribosome’s job to actually code, or basicallyessentially build a protein out of that arrangement? Professor Crotty: Right, so what your immune system expirations up needingto see in the end are proteins, because that’s what the virus itself is made out of, proteins.The spikeproteins are on the surface of the virus, and it’s those proteins that an antibody or T cadres would recognize and your cadres are offsetting proteins all the time, as instructed byRNA themes. So now instead they’re going to start these viral spike proteins, and that’s whatthe immune system will start realize, and that does get triggered by just the normal proteinsynthesis machinery in the cadres, which is, um yeah, which are the ribosomes and the amino acidsalready in your cells.Kyle: Why not just skip a gradation and use a vaccine that uses the spike proteinitself? Why go through this extra gradation of the of the RNA? Professor Crotty: Right, that’s a really good question, so andone of the classic ways to make a vaccine is to have the inoculation be the protein, be theviral spike protein or has become a viral nanoparticle. And there are inoculations that workfantastically well that action, and some of the original vaccines going backto the early 20 th century are that way; that’s the tetanus vaccine and diphtheriavaccine, which are incredibly successful. And in fact, some of the COVID-1 9 vaccinescurrently being worked on are protein vaccines, and there’s a acceptable hazard those will succeedas vaccines.A downside to protein inoculations is that you have to manufacture the protein, andthe manufacturing process for any given protein is its own unique manufacturing problem, and so interms of simply a physical production question, you’ve got to solve that creation difficulty. And sincethat’s unique, the FDA has to basically recollect every step of it and agree that everythingis fine about that. And viral proteins tend to be kind of unique proteins; they’renot super simple to manufacture, so it can take some time and intensity to figure outhow to solve that, basically, manufacturing trouble, that biochemistry protein synthesisproblem. The RNA vaccines bypass that trouble, because the manufacturing process is alwaysthe same. The RNA encodes a different sequence, but molecularly, it’s the same manufacturingprocess, and so FDA approval and what not is all really fast, because it just it looksthe same from a manufacturing standpoint.So that’s why the RNA vaccines have gone through phaseone, phase two, phase three trial so fast and gotten FDA approval so quick is because they were theywere very fast to produce and very fast to approve, because it’s, principally, formerly they solvethe problem formerly, it’s push and play video games. Kyle: So along those lines, do you think this is really the future ofvaccine development, exploiting this type of technology? Professor Crotty: I imply, the results are incredibly encouraging, right? I represent this is the first time ever in human history there’s been a vaccine developed within acalendar year, and is not simply that , now it’s actually been three, right? There have been threesuccessful phase three clinical inquiries within a single given calendar year. That’s never happened foranything. So this really is miraculous achievers in the RNA vaccine showing 95 efficacy, right? And incredible efficacy in the elderly and stupendous efficacy against severe malady. I necessitate, those are huge triumphs and RNA vaccines are definitely going to be successful solutionsagain in the future.I think they’re likely to still be part of the vaccine toolbox. I don’tthink they’ll solve all our problems. There are some things that I think they’regood at, and there are other things that other vaccine technologies may be better at. But interms of hurrying, I signify , nothing can parallel this. You know, I entail vaccine change, classically, is frequently a 20 -year process, right? Or, you know, let’s say a 10 -year process, and instead you’retalking about a 10 -month process. You know, it’s not only a 10 -month process, but a 10 -month processthat really involved a huge amount of safety data on all, right? I necessitate, you know, 70,000 quantities beinggiven and researched to validate both the efficacy and the safety that clearly RNA vaccines have avery promising future.Kyle: From my understanding, mRNA does its study only in the cytoplasm of ourcells.Is that correct? Professor Crotty: That’s correct. So yeah, I’ve gotten lots of questions about, “well wait, isn’t this genetic engineering? I don’t want to be genetically engineered.” I’m like, well, fair enough, I don’t want to be genetically altered either, but this is RNA; it’s just messages.They’re transient, temporary, they don’t become part of your body.It’s just not the same thing as DNA. Kyle: Now what about, speaking of DNA, the AstraZeneca vaccine candidate that implements DNA? Professor Crotty: Yeah, so both the AstraZenecaapproach and the Johnson& Johnson approach use a viral vector, and it is a viral vector thatcontains DAN, but truly it’s about the virus. So they’re using a different virus andadenovirus as a delivery arrangement into your cadres, basically, you are familiar with, kind of like giving you oneviral infection to teach your immune plan how to fight another viral infection.That’s alsotransient DNA that doesn’t become part of your DNA, That’s just the virus’s DNA, and thoseviral vectors they’ve been “gutted, ” so that they can’t become another adenovirus.It’s like taking a car and taking out the engine, you are familiar with, and even and taking out theseats. It still looks a lot like a vehicle from the outside and you are eligible to gave some new stuff in it, and you’resort of showing that to the immune system to teach you what something looks like, but it’s not goingto go drive off on its own or anything. Kyle: Got it. Okay so going back to our kind of step-by-stepprocess, we have the mRNA.The ribosome then codes for a spike protein. Does that spike proteinthen come liberated from our our cells? Does it get expressed on the surface of our cells or both? Professor Crotty: Both. Predominantly, it’s getting expressed on the surface of the cells, and that’s just um, that’swhere, well, that’s a good way for it to be shown to the immune system, basically. Kyle: So it gets shown tothe immune method and then what happens? Professor Crotty: Uhhh, so, a thousand different things .[ Laughter] An immune responseis a really complicated, orchestrated dance but, basically, you have in your person rightnow specific areas of your adaptive immune method that can potentially realise any possiblevirus that would ever exist. But to do that, you have billions of cadres that are all really rare, soit’s basically, there’s like one in a million cadres somewhere that could actually meet the antibodiesthat would recognize the virus that they are able to stop it. And same thing with the T cells, so what has tohappen is those very rare cells have to be exposed to this new protein, and then since those cellsare so rare, they’re not very useful when they’re, you are familiar with, one in a million, one in a billioncells in your body.So those cells have to grow and partition and multiply until thereare thousand of them, and that takes time. And that’s one of the large-scale goals of a vaccineis to, actually, the whole point of a inoculation is to show your immune arrangement what thevirus looks like before you’re infected, so that your immune organization can go throughthat learning process and that rise process on its own, on your immune system’s own term, and get you to a moment where now, okay, you’ve got the antibodies, and you’ve got the T cells, and you’re going to have that immune reminiscence all before you ever get exposed to the virus.So commonly when you get exposed to the virus, the virus gets the head start. Okay and then yourimmune system is playing catch-up; your immune organisation has these rare cells that can potentiallyprotect you, but they’re rare, and they have to grow from one cell into hundreds of thousands of cells, andusually that takes a week, and you get sick for that week in the meantime.Kyle: So youtalked about this cascade of immune structure effects and have responded to either a inoculation ora natural infection with a inoculation. What evidences would you expect when the immune systemis really ramping up and answering? Professor Crotty: Yeah, it’s another good question, and and I getit a lot. Yeah, I certainly tell people, you know, these vaccines are safe; thatdoesn’t mean they’re not gonna make it not feel so great for a day or two orhave a little bit of a excitement, and that can be a really positive thing, because essentially thisgoes back to your immune system is certainly designed to remember things that were somethingof a threat, you are familiar with, and so it’s, uh, you really do kind of have to earn your immunity some, a lot likegoing to the gym and working out.You know, if you get actually sore, that can really be a positivesign. Same kind of thing for a vaccine; if you’ve got some grow, if you’ve gotsome redness, if you got a little bit of a delirium, those are basically all straightforward indicates thatyour immune structure is working, is doing its activity of recognizing that vaccine and buildingthe tools and artilleries to fight the virus if they see it, and usually for most vaccines, thatcan go on for, you are familiar with, the working day, 2 day, three days, and that’s been what parties have been seeingwith these RNA vaccines as well. Most people get a bit of redness and a bit of soreness, and andsome people get a real fever for a period, and that’s frankly really a positive signthat your immune organization is engage it. Kyle: So, I make, “side effect” is almost the wrongterminology for that. I intend, it’s really kind of an expected immunogenic response.Professor Crotty: Precisely, and that’s why it’s important to recognize that safety is most important forvaccines, because vaccines are given to healthful people, and that’s always been a key featureof vaccines is paying a lot of attention to to security, but that’s different than, yeah, what we’re talking about here of getting sore or feeling feeling a bit tired.Those can be sort of, basically, “on target” influences, signeds that you’re immune, indicates that the vaccineis really working.Kyle: The lead from the FDA and the CDC with the the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccineis that even people who have had a previous SARS-CoV-2 illnes should get the vaccine.I thinka lot of beings were initially confused by this. Why do you think they obliged such recommendations? Professor Crotty: Yeah, it’s a good question, and it’s because we don’t, like as of today and certainly as ofa couple weeks ago, we don’t have a good see of how long does protective exemption last-place after you’ve had COVID-1 9? And we also don’t know how long it previous afterthe vaccines. But, still further that the inoculations are are looking good. In our data, when we looked at immune memory in beings, right, we were seeing something like9 5 percent of people had what we consider immune retention. That searches good, but that stilldoesn’t prove that those people are going to have protective immunity. Actually, you have to havebigger, longer studies to wait and see, you are familiar with. How long are people protected? And so, yeah, I conceive the vaccine recommendation is correct. If we knew for sure that catching COVID-1 9 genuinely did give you protective immunity for a long time, thenI anticipate the vaccine recommendation would be “no, don’t bother.” But as it stands rightnow, we don’t know that, and so it constitutes feel to still recommend going the vaccine.Kyle: Andis it possible that the vaccine are truly return longer exemption than a natural illnes? Professor Crotty: It’s possible.There are definitely inoculations that do that. So the papillomavirus vaccine is afantastic example of a inoculation where the inoculation drives course better than naturalinfection at give protective immunity and long wear exemption. The opposite too occurs.I mean, the normal flu vaccine genuinely affords fairly short-lived immunity, but if you actuallycatch the influenza, your immunity to that flu is really quite long-lasting. So it cango both behaviors, and since RNA vaccines are new, we don’t have a historical reference point forcomparison.So far the data with the RNA vaccines has been magnificent, and genuinely the bigunanswered question with them at this point is durability. How long are they going to last? And right now, we don’t know how long stability is going to last for thevaccine compared to having had the illnes. Kyle: The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and the Modernavaccines are very similar. Why does the Pfizer vaccine need to be stored at negative 94 degreesfahrenheit, when the Moderna vaccine simply needs regular refrigeration? Professor Crotty: It’s pretty cold, right? Well, I speculate the Moderna, one necessaries the very cold for long-term storage but for a shorter term, it cando better. And in fact, there are other RNA vaccine formulations that have been published laterin 2020 that could actually do area temperature storage. It comes down to thenature, the exact nature, of those lipid nanoparticles, and how stable they are. Kyle: I’m gonna put you on the spot now, Professor Crotty. Ifyou had a family member or a close friend say to you, “You know, professor, you’vestudied vaccines in exemption your part profession. This inoculation searches predicting, but it, you knowas you mentioned, the timeline has been so much shorter than what we’re used to with vaccines andit’s using a new technology, this rna engineering. Should I be nervous about this? ” What would you say? Professor Crotty: Yeah, big question. And the answer is no, don’t be nervous. Clearly get vaccinated.If you can get inoculated, I intend patently for one right now, the COVID-1 9 threat in the populationis horrible, right? I mean, we’ve spanned thresholds of like 3,000 demises a day in thecountry. I make, those are, uh, it’s a really bad situation, and on the flip side, these vaccinesare, you are familiar with, 95 percentage effective. That, in two totally independent inquiries of huge numbers of people, thatdata is really strong. These inoculations clearly use, and yeah I certainly get questionsabout safety, who the hell is rational questions to ask, again, because you said, because of the speed.And so there are two parts of it: one is you would be really hard-pressed to find anymedicine that has had this much safety data once by the time it becomes publicly available.Again, 70,000 people have already gotten the vaccine and been moved for safety.That’s a hugeamount of safety data, mode more than most medicines get when they come to market. So, I signify, thoseare — and the above reasons for compiling all that was actually because of speed. That’s actually to find develops quick enough, they had to have a huge number of people involved in the study, and so as a result, they got a ton of safety data, and they’ve also went refuge data vanishing, you are familiar with, for basically six months from the earlier clinical ordeals that got startedin the summer. Really the best way to be considered the hurry of change is one: this isa technology that could be used to move very fast through manufacturing and that’s really where a lot ofthe speed came from was manufacturing. The refuge parts of it is the same amount oftime as it mostly ever makes. And the other thing that’s been fast about it has been problemsthat money could solve. So normally for developing a inoculation, person goes through a phase one trialand then waits and then goes through a time trouble and waits and then goes to a phase three.Theydon’t invest a huge amount of money up front, because there’s a good chance that they would losethat money, and instead in this situation, right, going back to March, corporations authorities, andnon-government organizations were all saying, “okay, expend the billion dollars up front, youknow, and sure, we may lose that fund, but if it operates we’ll have a inoculation, you know, ayear faster than we otherwise would, because we’re just paying for the manufacturing to get goingup front.” That’s just the problem money can solve.You could just be losingthat money in the end, but you’re not taking any shortcuts. You’re just starting the process alot earlier than you would otherwise and, sure as shooting, things used to work fantastically well, right, and these vaccines are actually driving, and so now there are already vaccine quantities beingdelivered instead of the companies now starting to manufacture them and then being delivered, youknow, six months or more last-minute. Kyle: And as you mentioned, there’s good data and there’s a lot of data aboutsafety in the short term. What about long-term potential side effects? I know that’s anotherconcern.Professor Crotty: Yeah, that’s a good question, and that was one of the main ones that the FDA wanted to consider aswell, and so basically they did its examination of of vaccine literature and said , “yeah in the pastfor all these other vaccines, any important inoculation safety signature was clear within two months, ” andso that’s why the FDA precisely required that people are two full months of safety data onthese big tribulations and that’s what’s being reviewed by the FDA, and they’ve, yeah, they’ve ogled fine.Kyle: So in other words, if, based on on the substantial biography we have with inoculations, ifyou don’t see a security concern in the first two months of use of the inoculation, it’s unlikely to seelong-term side effects down the road? Professor Crotty: Right, yeah, that’s exactly right.Kyle: Well, Professor Crotty, thanksso much for connecting us today. We certainly applauded the fact, and, briefly, any next projects thatyou and your squad there at the lab are focusing on? Professor Crotty: Yeah, so, I symbolize, here at the LaJolla Institute for Immunology, we’re one of the best places in the world studying theimmune organisation, and we can actually look at all these different immune responses to COVID-1 9 atthe same time, which most places can’t. So we’re continuing to examine that both to tryand understand acute disease, you know why people end up in the hospital, as well as immunememory to this virus, and it’s, uh yeah, it’s a lot of work, but it’s important. So thoseare the problems we keep trying to solve. Kyle: Well, thanks so much for your time and all your researchand work.Really appreciate it.Professor Crotty: Yeah, thanks, Kyle ..
